The Indianization

Project: The Indianization
Author: Lem Chuck Moth

Started date: June/01/2003
Last updated: November/30/2016
All right reserved.
Note:
Since this paper is still drafted, the readers would be advised to ignore any context errors. The content is not final and subjected to be reviewed.

INTRODUCTION
Scholars consented that the Aryan culture was found first in Gangetic India before it was transferred to Southeast Asia. They used the word Indianization to denote the cultural transfer that was taking place after the arrival of Kaundinya to the mainland Indochina. As the word Indianization suggests a single Indian source of Southeast Asian civilization, it could mislead to view it as Indian invasion and worst of all to Indian colonization. It is important to note that the Arianized world of the time did not even have the word colonization in their vocabulary. To conquer a country and reduced it to a colony of another more powerful country was fairly a new concept of the Western world. Invasion was on the other-hand conducted as a subjugation of one royal court by a rival court rather than a subjugation of a country. In regard to the Indian invasion, there were indeed infiltration and military raids between the two continents, but they were initiated from both sides and none resulted in giving control to India. As the choice of the word might lead to confusion, it would be wise to clarify first what the word Indianization should mean.
Indianization must be understood essentially as the expansion of an organized culture that was founded upon the Indian conception of royalty, was characterized by Hinduist or Buddhist cults, the mythology of the Puranas, and the observance of the Dharmasastras, and expressed itself in the Sanskrit language. It is for this reason that we sometimes speak of "Sanskritization" instead of "Indianization". (ISSA: Indianization: Definition of Indianization)
Since the Sanskritization was for a long while perceived by scholars as the Arianization of the Indian Continent, there are no evidences that the first wave reached south India all at once. As a matter of fact, scholars had settled the geographical limitation of Aryavata just to the Gangetic India while the south was still retaining its ancient Dravidian culture. New evidences show that Southeast Asia received the Arianized culture, about the same time if not earlier than the southern part of the Indian continent.

The Cultural Transfer
There was a common mistake among scholars to identify King Hun Tien as Kaundinya (Notes: Kandanya vs Kaundinya). The misidentification led to the wrong assumption that the arrival of Kaundinya and king Hun Tien was the same event that brought the Indian culture to be implanted in Southeast Asia. As we shall argue, the two historical accounts that were based on similar stories about an abroad Brahman or prince marrying a local queen or princess, were actually compiled from two different events that took place four centuries apart. Marking two different phases of Indianization, both accounts reveal the important fact that foreign cultures were implanted into local societies through marriage of the high court. The first event concerning the arrival of king Hun Tien that led to the formation of Funan was dated around the first century when the local people were still perceived as savage to the critical eye of Chinese travelers. Oral tradition identifies him as a Kandanya Bhrahmana of Kambojan stock who was making his way to subdue a local queen of Kauk Tloak and married her. On the other hand, the second event that consists of the arrival of Kaundinya from India whose settlement in Southeast Asia led to the formation of Nokor Khmer, happened much later around the end of the fourth century. In Khmer tradition, he was an exile Indian prince named Prah Thong who after marrying the local Nagi Princess, received from his father-in-law half of the Naga Kingdom as wedding's present. According to Chinese sources, the arrival of Kaundinya would bring a new wave of civilization from the Gangetic India that characterized what scholars called the Indianization of Southeast Asia. As we shall see, the mistake was committed by western scholars among many other misconceptions during the compiling of Southeast Asian history. Done during the colonial rule, Indian history was compiled in such a way that Indian culture owed all its Arianization to the western civilization. On the same premises, they perceived Southeast Asian history to be less of its originality than its two neighbors did. Ignoring completely local tradition, scholars first wrote the history of Southeast Asia as based on well accepted theory that civilization had never been taking hold between the Indian and the Chinese continents in prehistoric time (Prehistory: Introduction). The misconception was particularly accepted from the start and had received widespread support in such way that new finding, from independent researchers, had hard time to overrule.

THE MISCONCEPTIONS
Based on the known fact that Southeast Asia was once practicing Hindu and Buddhism, scholars saw the Indianization became the only explanation of the presence of the Southeast Asian civilization of today. As we shall see, this colonial view did not fit well with the next formation of Khmer empire as a center of Buddhist expansion. From a different perspective, we shall prove that the Indianization of Southeast Asia was not of Indian initiative, but instead was a part of the over-all Meru development. To start, we need to refute current misconceptions about the Indianization of Southeast Asia as presented to us in modern history 's books and that the Siva-Buddhist culture was as much of Southeast Asian as of Indian origin.

The Early Indian Connection
In formulating the Indianization theory, scholars postulated many hypotheses about how Indian civilization was transferred to the new world of uncivilized tribesmen. Among all, the hypothesis of Indian merchants' role in colonizing the local people was by far the most popular one. In this colonial view, the merchants came by ships and looking to do business with the locals, ended-up settling among them. In the long run, more Indians of different background also moved in and brought the Indian culture to spread among the natives and in the process, brought them to civilization (ISSA: Indianization: How the first Indian Establishments were formed: P. 21-22). It was the same model that was used to postulate the civilization of the Javanese societies that contradicts head-on with accounts that were found in Chinese sources. From the tales of sea navigation, there were well-publicized hostilities of the southern indigenous tribes toward merchant chips (Kamboja-Desa: The Suzerainty of Funan: Pi-kien or the Island of the Kambuja). From the head hunting habit to the piracy business, it is hard to imagine that early merchants had the nerve to make business with them, let alone to settle among them. Records show that these high-spirited sea merchants who were looking for high profit venture to the East, were mostly Arabs. One thing clear about them that applies to other modern merchants as well is that gut and good intention had never been parts of their business (Notes: The role of Business in Modern Society). Even though there were knowledge of rich natural resources among the untapped islands of the South China Sea, they tried to avoid hostilities with the indigenous tribesmen at all cost. They rather contended to do safe business with the already civilized communities along the northern coast of the mainland and obviously along the western coast of the Malay Archipelago. Evidences show that these communities were to become major ports of Southeast Asia where trading activities had transformed later into international market places under the Meru development of Ta-Tsin. We had argued that the Malay-Polynesians had colonized the Pacific Ocean and there are no reasons that they did not also venture out into the Indian Ocean and further west. The people of Mahidhara were already sea-master since the great flood and that Sampan woods were also locally abundant for shipbuilding. After the settlement of Meru Culture at Middle East, indications point-out that cultural, political and commercial activities between the two continents also started. Nevertheless, evidence points out that during the last millennium before Christ, it was the Arab merchants who monopolized the sea-trade. During the expansion of the Han Chinese, it was the Arab merchants who recorded the decline and the fall of the eastern Ta-Tsin that led to the Kamara's mass migration down south and further into Madagaska (The Birth of Dai-Viet: The Displacement of the Kamara People). On the same premises, we shall also refute another theory about Indian mass migration as possible cause of Indianization. It postulated that during the unrest of the northern Indian continent, Indian migrants as far as the Indus River and the western side of Himalayas moved to take refuge in Indochina. As land routes had been proved to exist between the Indian and the Southeast Asian continents, the new theory of Indian migration had been so far unchallenged. However, new studies show that foreign invasions, as in the case of the Scythians and the Koshans, over the Gangetic India were not about land or cultural expansion. Their attacks were mostly done by displaced courts targeting the local ruling classes in the process of establishing themselves on top of the local communities. Either in their own drives or driven out by the attack of others, the invaders needed the local people to support their new ventures. In most situations, only the privileges needed to escape the prosecution while the general population needed only to adapt to the new rulers. Evidence show that the invaders came only with a core of army recruits and built their own court on top of the previous fallen one. They made use of anything that they could lay their hand on and not to say the least, whoever want to joint them were openly welcome in their societies. The only event that induces high casualty to the mass of people was during the retaliation's campaigns of the Mauryan. In a rage of finding out the unrestricted support given to the displaced Nanda by Orissa, King Ashoka unleashed a series of punitive campaigns against its people. The first time recorded in Indian history, Ashoka wiped out a great numbers of people. Still there was no record of a mass migration triggered by the event. Indian societies were particularly stable due mostly to the strict casting system of the Hindu culture. People of the low cast were long time settlers and were well attached to their homeland. Even though there were abuse exerted by local powerhouses and constant warfare between them, they did not have any mean to migrate out of their homelands. Due to the limiting factor of both the land and the sea route, travel from India to Southeast Asia at the early time was simply not open for everyone. Furthermore they have no motivation to do so as emigration was tabooed even for members of the high Brahman Class.

The Indian Rajas
In concluding the Indianization of Southeast Asia, many scholars agreed that mass migration was not the case. It was actually the cultivated elements of the top two casts who, through their understanding, became the spreader of Indian culture in farther India (ISSA: Indianization: P.23). Cited as proof of their argument was the presence of the ethnic Tchou Indian in the court of Funan as mentioned in Chinese source. One of them was recorded in Chinese source as the king of Funan named Tian-Tchou Chanda sending his embassy in 357 to China, bringing along two tamed white elephants as tribute to the Tsi (Sui) court. There was no other source to confirm that they were actually belonged to any Indian royal house nor to any Indian court. Considered as non-Aryan stock, they were looking for a fresh opportunity to elevate themselves as members of the high cast, after having been rejected in their native country. The conclusion was that the high spirited Tchou Indians saw Southeast Asia as possible ground for colonization in a similar way that colonies had been formed in modern time. What scholars did not know was that these Tchou Indians were in fact members of the Aryan clan no less than other Indian Ksattryas or rajas and were not even Indian. Our study proves furthermore that they were actually members of the Coladhara naga house who were no other than the displaced Tchou royal house of China. After the attack of the Han Chinese, they took refuge in the courts of Funan and Prey Nokor. Their southern presence, as we shall see, was the main contributing factor to the formation of the next Southeast Asian royal houses as well as the Gupta court of the Gangetic India. These Tchou rajas had their background from the Meru lineage and were more or less connected with the Hiong-Wang kingdom. Their status were confirmed by Khmer inscriptions of referencing them using the word "Kola" or "Rajakola" that meant to be the royal family. Through an inheritance that they carried through from their very first ancestor king Manu, the Rajakola established themselves as the race of rajas in Southeast Asia. As the seat of the grass root Kun-Lun people, Southeast Asia offered safe heaven and provided them with the opportunity to rebuild their next ventures. On the other hand, the real migrants from India were mostly found to be members of the rajas or Ksatryas who were all from Sakan roots. The Kambojan King of Sri Vijaya, the Mauyan Prince Simhanati, the Cham King Ajiraja was from the west. They came with their complete court and entourage so the could established themselves quickly into the new land. Either conscious of their origin or not, they brought new materialism along with barbarism into the region. After their settlement, clashes with the native naga houses were noticed through the next history of Southeast Asia. Nevertheless, serious effort had been seen to pacify the region as well as to stand against foreign interference. Through Buddhism, a new consortium was under way. We knew from Chinese sources that the last Indian king Tian-Tchou Chanda already emerged himself as a king of Funan. We had identified him as the "Kamara Tam Canda" whom according to the inscription of Vo-Canh sent tamed elephants to the court of China. As indicated in the inscription of Vo-Canh, he was a member of the Raja Kola family of Meruraja. As we shall see, his presence would consort all Southeast Asian royal houses into becoming a Cakravatin Empire that consists of grouping small kingdoms into a bigger state while states were again joined into an Empire. While each one of the kingdoms had their own king, the universal ruler of the Middle Kingdom received the title of rajadhiraja, the king of kings. It is important to note that the concept of a Cakravatin Empire was not new to South Asia. The Buddhist tradition claims that king Sudhodhana, Buddha Gautama's father, was a Cakravatin monarch and that Buddha Gautama would be the next if he had not chosen a different path from his father. Khmer inscriptions refer the title "Kamara Tam" meaning the elected Kamara, and another title "Kamara Tem" meaning the Kamara appointee were both used as the title of Khmer monarchs. Another word "Kantanya" meaning "I the Kanta" was also found in Khmer reference to the identity of religious figures of the Brahmin cast becoming members of the Ksatryas through intermarriage; most Kambojan monarchs were members of this cast. Both legacies indicate that the new generation of Khmer monarchs (Mararaja) and Brahmans were from Kamarakanta, country of the Tian Shan range. Moving into the Gangetic India they were known as the Sakya. As part of their tradition, they were proud of their identity and tried to retain their royal status at all cost through conservation of bloodline. The Sakyas, for instance, were so conservative that for the preserving of their race, incest was not one of their concerns and marriage between siblings and close relative was quite acceptable in their tradition. Reflecting the membership of Southeast Asia with the Magadhan empire, Prah Thong who was the founder of the Khmer Empire, was known in Khmer tradition as a SaKya and a Kumeruraja (Notes: Kumeruraja).

The Aryan Identity
Due to the fact that the Aryans were the compilers of the Rig-Veda, scholars made mistake of attributing anything in the Veda as Aryan. Through its many verses, the Veda conveys battles and wars that misled scholars to think that it was actually the Aryan way of life (Notes: The Aswa or the Iswin of the Rig-Veda). They were carried troughs by horse-drawn chariots that proved to become the state-of-the-art war newest commodity. To scholars, it confirms the supreme military advance of the Aryan that made them dominant through out the ancient world. In a closer look, the Rig-Veda attributed most of these battles not to the God Aryaman but to the god-king Aswin or Aswa. In most of the accounts of war and battles, the Aswin troupes crushed their enemies by driving the horse chariots over them and took the easy victory through their military superiority. It turn-out that these warriors were not Aryan and theirs warlike attitude led us to believe that they were instead of Sakan origin. Based on the fact that Aswa (or Aswin) of the Rig-Veda was actually the god-king of the Kambujas, we shall identify that Aswataman was actually a title of a Kambojan king. From the this point of view, the identity of the Aryans in Indian histor is not very clear. To explain the Aryan culture in Gangetic India, the Aryan Invasion Theory was by far the most accepted explanation of the probable cause of the Aryan settlement in Gangetic India. Initiated by western scholars, the Aryan invasion theory was the most accepted version of the Aryan identity and their presence inside of Gangetic India. According to the theory, the Aryans were of fair complexion, speaking Aryan language and came from the north-west, across the Hindu Kush mountains, and entered India through Afghanistan (AInd: The Aryans: The Origins of the Aryans: P. 30). They belonged to a very ancient stock of the human race, and lived for a long period with the forefathers of the Greek, the Roman and other European royal houses. The description was more accurately describing the Sakan aristocrats that were making up the majority of Indian high societies at the time. On their own term, the Aryans did not present themselves to be of fair complexion that was a known trait of the European race. Of modest background, they were often been eclipsed by the flamboyant life-style of their Sakan compatriots, the Kambojas, the Yueh-Shih and the Hiong-Nu royal houses. As we had argued, the Gangetic India had been the escape ground of the Sakan leadership since the start-up of the Meru Culture in Middle East. Some Indian scholars do not accept the view that the Aryans came from outside, but were instead locals. They regard them as indigenous Indians, some sections of whom gradually migrated to different part of Asia and Europe. Their legacies were held on other grounds long before the discovery of Mahenjodaro (AInd: Sindhu Valley Civilization: Spread of the Civilization: P. 26). Nevertheless, We had argued that the Indus Valley's civilization was not Indian by origin but was part of the Sumerian Middle Eastern development. At the same time, we had argued that the Aryans were Brahmans of the Meru court who got their identity from their close association with Meru who himself was invoked (in the Rig-Veda) as the Aryaman (The Man Race: The Shan Mythology: The Aryan Identity). They were originated from the footsteps of mount Himalayas served in the Meru Court and during the early period worshipped the Aryaman who was no other than Meru himself. Their return back into both the Gangetic India and Southeast Asia was done gradually and were warmly greeted by the local naga royal houses (The Man Race: The Himalayan Culture: The Jin of Nagaland). In contrast, evidences show that the Indo-Aryan's settlement in both the Gangetic India and Southeast Asia were mostly done through military invasion (Notes: The Kauruvas and the Panduvas). To reflect the reality of the Sakan incursion in the naga world of Jambudvipa, we shall split the process into two phases. The first phase that followed immediately the rising of the Shang dynasty was recalled by the locals as tough and enduring. Both domestic and sex Slaves were captured during the raid for both the Tai aristocracy and the European market. Nevertheless, rebellious activities that resulted in the fall of the Shang court and the rise of the Tchou dynasty of China stopped short the exploitation the exploitation of the Sakan world. The second phase of the Sakan settlement was often carried on with tact and less friction. Since they were not the majority of the population, the new rulers found themselves the need to adapt to local politic of the naga worlds. After many generations of intermarriage, they blend themselves completely into the mainstream of the new societies. In a series of cultural transfer, the Khmer culture started to have its own aspect that became later the base of the Angkorean Cakravatin Empire. Mixed with legacies from the past, new imported cultures undeniably enriched the Khmer Tradition. Many aspects of indigenous cultural elements, especially of Naga legacies were preserved and modernized to the new standard of recent development. Indianization, by all means, added another layer into the Khmer culture that was crucial in the next formation of the Angkorean Cakravatin Empire.

THE ARIANIZATION OF THE GANGETIC INDIA
We had argued that the Indian Culture was actually the product of the Indus Valley that was created during the formation of Middle Eastern Cakaravatin Empire. Nevertheless, concrete evidences of the Aryanization of the Gangetic India could be found only at a much later date. For instances, the Vedic scriptures being compiled or made available in the Hindu Culture could be dated by scholars only after 1500 BC. It was the Nandas who first brought the Meru Culture into the Gangetic India and developed into a full-blown Aryan Culture. Nicknamed as the Aryavata, the Gangetic India became the seat of a new Cakravatin Empire that promoted the discipline of the Vedic Culture. Our focus here is restricted only to the Aryan development in Gangetic India that was carried-on further to Southeast Asia during the formation of the Khmer Empire in the mainland Indochina.

The Vedic Origin
The inscription of Mi-Son erected by the Cham King Jaya Harivarman in Saka 1036 (1114 AD) recalled the origin of Civanandana's lineage from the divine existence of Brahma and his consort Naga Queen.
Ciy Civanandano nama Bramalokasya bhubhrtah Nai Jinayan Vya bhajas sunur asid raja --- mvarah (BEFEO IV: Notes D'Epigraphie: Les inscriptions de Mi-Son: P. 955: Face A: Line II, M. L. Finot)
From the lineage of King Samantha, the first king of the line was Vararaja who became later known as the progenator of Brahmanism and received his posthumous name of Brahmaloka. His kingdom Varadhana became known later as the country of the Brahmans. His son named Vararoja, also known as Uroja or Kururoja, became later the progenator of the Nandas. Represented by a cow (a bull in western cosmogony), the Nandas were considered as the god-kings of the agriculture. Archeology confirmed that Southeast Asia was at the forefront of agriculture since its early stage that spread itself to the rest of the world. Hindu ethnography also classified the southern continent of mount Himalayas as the country of the cow's race and was named as Kuruksetra after its king Kururoja. It was the first country of the world founded after the Great Flood where the Man Culture started. It is important to note that during this early stage, only the footstep of mount Himalayas and its surrounding high ground was not flooded and available for agriculture. Even after the floodwater from the rain retreated, the rest of Southeast Asia was still submerged. Tradition holds that two localities were formed after the Great Flood. Paranasi that was located right the footstep of mount Himalayas became known as the big country of the Brahmans and Srasvati that was located farther east at the congruence of the Srasvati and Brahmaputra rivers was known as the small country of Brahmans. The Rig-Veda contained many verses in the memory of Srasvati that allow us to identify Srasvati as the Irravati River of today (The Man Race: The Spreading of Himalayan Culture: The Countries of Brahman). In his journey to the west, Meru brought the Nandas with him to Middle East as members of his court to help establishing his western Cakravatin Empire. In developing the Moon Culture, the Nandas were responsible for all the material and cultural progression that became the de-facto civilization of the western world of today. The word "Nanda" was often used as a conjunction of the word "Vidya" (meaning Science) as a combined "Vidya-Nanda" word in reference to the tantrum part of both the Sivaite and the early Theravata Buddhist religions. More and more hymns were added into the Rig-Veda that constituted the core of Brahmanism. Its application had mostly been in correlation with the Meru Culture in older Pagan discipline that became the sources of modern science and technology. It explains why the Hindu cosmogony attributes the Nanda as the carrier of the Meru culture. As to its importance in the Meru Cosmology, Nanda is a reference to the divine Bull of God Siva and is represented by the constellation of Taureau. In taking care of the Veda, folklore had its humorous claim that the Bull Nanda stored all the Vedic manuscripts in its plum belly. In the Sumerian pantheon of Mesopotamia, the sun god Uru stood behind the Moon God Tsin until it was replaced by the Sun God Ra or Horus. The western tradition talked about the insubordination of the Nanda to Meru after the birth of Adam. According to the western Genesis, Satan refused to bow to Adam and was trying to warn Meru that Adam was not worth of his high esteem. Of his objection, Satan got rash judgment from Meru and was driven out from Ur leaving the Meru establishment to be run by new Brahmans of Adam descended. One of them was Abraham who was considered as the father of western religious schools of today. Unlike his peer, he was faithful to the Moon God Tsin and through his descendants, the Meru culture was preserved in many generations down the line. At the mean time, the Nandas moved into the Gangetic India bringing along with them the original Meru Culture and other inventions that they helped develop in Middle East to be bound into the Hindu Culture. In connection with Meru's development, they presented themselves as the Aryan Brahmans who recited the Veda's hymns using his Aryaman's identity to invoke his presence. An important remark is that only after Sivaism was conceived at India that Siva was revered as one of the Hindu gods of the Trinity. Moving into the Gangetic India, Meru's next task was to lead his followers to salvation. With the help of the Nandas, Sivaism made its transition to Buddhism. It is not surprising that "Nanda" became then a favorite name of the Sakyan clan among immediate family members of Buddha Gautama's mother side. On the other hand, the Sakyas of Simha lineage of his father side practiced Vishnuite and remained so even after the birth of Buddha Gautama who founded the Buddhist religion.

The Relationship Between Meru and the Nanda
In Indian history, the Nandas were often mentioned of modest background and their emergence seams to have no consequences. Their rise and fall were obscure, often eclipsed by the limelight of the Mauryan and later the Gupta Empire. As usual, historians tend to have a blind sight about the un-glamorous world of the creation. Unlike their Sakyan compatriots, they were not conservative. They did not believe in the cast system and did not maintain their status. They could spring up from any stratum of societies, but one sure aspect was that they always took pride of their divine origin. In that regard, their rise to power was often dramatic and some times miraculous, but often enough through the support of general people. Since the formation of Meru Culture, the Nandas had play important role in the formation of the Sumerian (Aryan) Culture. Through out the Meru's rule in Middle East, they represented the power of creation used by Meru to establish the foundation of his cakravatin empire. Driven out from Middle East, they brought with them all new development from the west into Northern India and built their empire along the Gangetic River. A new relationship of Meru with the Nanda was made after he found out that Israel could not depend upon to bring the world for salvation. By then, the Nandas already had their Aryavata established at the Gangetic India and already extended their cultural circle into the Chinese continent through the Tchou dynasty (Notes: Chinese Version of the Tchou Dynasty). Nevertheless, their next task of bringing the Meru culture out of Middle East to the Gangetic India required a massive campaign to the west. It was recorded in the Genesis's account of King Nebuchadnezzar taking control of Babylon and transformed it as his new command post for his Middle Eastern mission. According to the Buddhist tradition, a consortium was made when the Naga Coladara King married the sister of the Mahodara Naga King. The alliance gave the Coladra court the needed support for Middle Eastern invasion. The Bible was however quiet about Nebuchadnezzar's origin, but depiction that he left at the Ishta gate of Babylon show that he belonged to an eastern royal house. In the depiction, one might notice two symbols depicted side by side, one of a cow and the other of a mountain goat. The bull (or cow) symbol was the Nanda's trademark that was known through out Southeast Asia and Middle East alike. It was the symbol of the agriculturist society that made its way along with the Meru Culture to the west. On the other hand, it is well known that the Draconian Xiang Symbol of the Goat was of eastern origin. The exploit of Nebuchadnezzar in Middle East make us believe that the Nanda's campaign against the Sakas was extending from Gangetic India deep into Mesopotamia and beyond. It was the same conquest of the Sea People as recorded in the Middle Eastern tradition and depicted on the wall of Egyptian pantheons. With the support of the ocean Naga King Meruduk, Nebuchadnezzar used the Sea People to take control of Middle East and after building his city at Babylon was making his way to conquer Judea. After destroying Jerusalem, they brought the Meru Culture to the Gangetic India (The End Time: The Ezekiel's Prophecy: The Birth of Buddha Gautama). Either by faith or by design, Nebuchadnezzar's conquest of Jerusalem resulted in the exodus of the Moon God Tsin from Ishrael. From then on, Siva was deitfied as a divinity of this faction of the Nanda who became known as Siva-Nanda. Just as their campaign was complete, the alliance went sour and the two Naga clans went on fighting against each other again. As we had seen, their feud continued until it was resolved by Buddha Gautama (The Nagadvipa: The Visitt of Buddha Gautama: The Split of the Naga World). At the mean time, the feud caused the decline of the Nanda's rule at Middle East that allowed the Elamese court to conquer Babylon from Nabonidus. Nevertheless, the Nandas were seen establishing their own empire at Magadha along side the Naga kingdom of Kalyani. Under the Meru divine protection, their descendants transformed the Gangetic India into becoming next the seat of a Cakravatin Empire. The Setback came after Buddha Gautama refused to become the cakravatin monarch of Magadha after his father that forced king Sudhodhanu to hand-over the vacant throne to Bimbissara. In the transition, the Nandas lost their power-base at Magadha as the throne fell into the hand of the Sakan clan once again. After the reign of Bimbissara, the Magadhan Empire started to decline and under the ineffifient rules of his descendants fell into the dark side. The next hero who came to the rescue was Padmananda; by ridding off existing Sakan powers, he restored back the Magadhan throne and brought Buddhism into its next phase of expansion. He was quoted to be of no royal family at the time and ran a barbershop before his ascending to fame. Nevertheless, he was able to restore the Magadhan throne to his Nanda's ancestry and his next exploit was no less grandiose than other Indian rajas. Through out the Meru's culture, the Nandas represented the power of creation used by Meru to salvage his establishment after a setback by the antigonist force known as Mara. Through Khmer tradition, the bull Nanda's another task was to protect Buddhism and his relationship to the new religion was like a caring big brother watching for safety over his beloved brother. As we shall see, the Kala Yuga would render his job very difficult.

The Cultural Evolution
Of the history of writing, we know that the pictograph form of writing was the invention of the Sumerian. The next development of alphabets was still in debate on its source and on how it spread into becoming a standard way of moder writing. Before the colonization that was responsible for the alphabetization of the world writing system, geographical mapping shows a much more restricted regional use. In Europe, proof of the Linar A and later the Linear B forms of alphabetical writing were found in the heart of the Mycenaeans Greek societies. Scholars also found other alphabets being used in other parts of Middle Eastern communities as well. Nevertheless, we see no consistency in their usage in specific regions to make us believe that they were invented in these regions independently. Indications show that it was instead carried on by a group (or groups) of Sumerian scholars who were on the move through out the globe, along side the Meru's culture. A common factor in all these development was the legacy of Paganism carried on by the Nandas during their stay in Middle East. As well as the Sanskrit language, evidences also show that alphabets were also invented by them and were taught at Taxila (The Western Civilization: The Development of the Sumerian Culture: The Moon Culture). The explosion of rock inscriptions at Parthia in both Karosthy and Brahmi characters led us to believe that the Mycenaeans Greek's Linear B had progressed itself into the Karosthi characters and that the Brahmi characters was actually its derivative. In a close association with the Nandas, the Kambujas, the Yueh-Shihs and the Hiong-Nus were on the other hand responsible of spreading the usage to other part of the world through military and trade invasion. The Brahmi characters were seen next replacing the Karosthi and were known in Chinese source as the Hou's alphabet, before it was spread to the Phoenician communities of European seacoast. During the Europe's dark age, we knew that the Nandas were already retreated in the Gangetic India as part of an early purge from Middle East (The Civilization). With the availability of alphabets and writing material, they scripted the Vedas and established the Hindu cosmology out of their extensive records of world' events. These records often contained rich information of historical data of which modern scholars thought of tracing back the Aryan origin as well as of determining their real identity. From their deep knowledge base, we shall see that they were connected with every part of the world's civilization. Their work on the development of the Vedas, for instance, give us clues on how they moved from the footstep of Himalayas along with the Meru court to Middle East. At the time that they moved to Gangetic India, the Rig-Veda already contained hymns of the Aryaman (or Meru). Only after exiting Middle East that Rudra became the object of worship in replacing the Aryaman, not of a particular Sivaite sect, but of the Aryans in general all over India (Notes: The Aryaman as early personal God of Siva). As we shall se, the Rudra's legacy was found particularly strong in Deccan and in Southeast Asia where the Nandas were known to become the next rulers of the Indigenous Kamara people along side the native Xiang Dynasty. The Nanda's next task was to concept the Trinity from the essence of historical data that were recorded in the Rig-Veda (Notes: The Conception of the Trinity). It is important to note that the Rig-Veda was compiled prior to the conception of Trinity of which only Vishnu was fully deitfied as a spiritual (impersonal) god. To complete the conception of the Trinity, Brahma and Siva were conceived (AInd: New Religious Movements: Saivism: P. 175-177). As the first member of the Trinity, Brahma was actually derived from Prajapati to have a very high position as the creator of the early Vedic gods. He was deitfied as Varahman or Brahmana, the spiritual (impersonal) absolute of the Upanishads (Notes: The Upanishads) from which the theists derived the name Brahma. As the second member of the Trinity, Siva was derived from the Aryaman of the Rig-Veda to represent the birth of mankind' s civilization. Nevertheless, he was also derived from Rudra to represent the malignant and destructive force of nature against humanity's dark-side. He occupied at first a minor position in the Rig-Veda, but occasionally described to have supreme power. Rudra's conception is fully developed in the Yajur veda where his benevolent characteristics are brought out from the eclipse. When his wrathful nature is appeased he becomes Sambhu (benignant) Sankara (beneficent), and Siva (auspicious). In the next Atavarveda, Rudra is revered as a supreme God, and the furthest point is reached when Svetavatara Upanishad substituted his active personal god (living god) in the place of impersonal (spiritual) Brahman of the Upanishad. It assert that there is only Siva and no others who currently ruled the world. According to Sivaism, When there was simple darkness and no day and night, Siva alone existed. His form is invisible. Nobody see him with the eye. Those who see him dwelling in the heart and by the internal consciousness become immortal (Notes: Rudra-Siva as the Personal God of the Bible). Siva, the God, the creator and destroyer, is said to be knowable by Bhava (faith love and pure heart).

THE RISE OF THE GUPTAS
One iconic event in the modern history of India was the rise of the Gupta Empire. So far, Indian history did not provide good information about its background that could clarify its origin and identity to us. Their political connection with other Indian royal houses was also left in the dark. Traces of the Mauryan ancient legacy in its tradition however leads us to believe that the Gupta Court was actually a resurrection of this Sakan power house. We had argued that their Sakan heritage had a deep root from the Shang Dynasty of China (The Sakadvipa: The Birth of the Sakan Nation: The Sakan Mythology) . On the same remark, the Khmer legend of Prah Thong hinted that Indrapathpuri was then ruled by his father Adityavamsa, as a cakavatin monarch (Prey Nokor: The Indian Connection: Prah Thong's Family Background). From the two leads, we shall construct the history of the Guptas in reference to both its Sakan and local roots.

Indrapathpuri Sri Mahanokor
The settlement of Meru in Middle East induced interbreeding that generated new Simha line of kings among his descendants. The first of the line was Sri Kambu who, as the builder of the Pyramid of Giza, became the first of the Lion King line of Egyptian Pharaos. The Abrahmic School portrayed this event in the western mythology as the conception of Adam by the Moon God Tsin (Notes: Adam vs Satan in the Western Mythology). The history of mankind complicates when two offspring of Adam quarreled each other and Cain was banished because he murdered his brother Abel. The first dynasty that was derived from Cain to venture out in the untapped ream of human kind was the Shang Dynasty of China. From the start, their foundation in Chinese continents created a big impact on the Xiang communities of the Tien Shan range. To recall back, the Xiangs were the first flood survivors who ventured out to the rigid region of mount Himalayas in finding habitable land (Prehistory: The Flood Culture: The Xiang People and their Journey up to the Tian-Shan Range). From the oracle bones scholars were able to bring to light the complex relationship between the Xiangs and the new comer Shangs who brought with them a new life-style that became since the backbone of the Chinese civilization (BChin: Sacrifice: P213-215). Overwhelmed it was about the sacrifice of the Xiang prisoners of wars during their early encounters and later the slave trades of the Xiangs that followed (Notes: Sacrifice and Slave Trade). Archeology confirms the oracle bones that during their early encounters, many Xiangs were killed and buried in mass grave in such way that religious sacrifice could not be one of the probable causes of their death. The oracle bones went a great length to documents their names before they were killed mostly by depicatation. Clearly they were members of the high class of the Xiang communities captured and exterminated by the Shangs to rid off any resistance to their rule. After an elapse of time, the killing appeared to stop as the slave trade of the Xiang prisoners of wars became more fashionable for the Shang rulers, It was because they found out that they could make a good fortune with the Xiang slaves at the European Market. The upland slavic tribesmen became victims of the Shangs raid over the Slavic region, solely for the capturing of its people for the slave trade. To save themselves, the Xiang started to rebel against their oppressors and demanded a stop to their bad practices. In consortium with the Nanda leadership of the Kun-lun range, the Xiang subdued the Shangs and formed the Tchou dynasty to rule over China. The collapse of the Greek Mycenaean civilization in 1070 BC was actually a subsequent of the fall of the Shang dynasty of China. By absorbing the lower courts of the Shang into its own, the Tchou ended up transforming itself as a new breed of the Sakan kings and Kamarakanta became their cultural and political center. While the hard core of the Shang Dynasty was subdued and drove out from Anyang, the rest of the Shasng Court was left to rule central China under the Tchou to form the Wu Dynasty. Close by New Delhi, a locality known as Indrapath was perhaps the place that the displaced Shang court took refuge and regrouped themselves to become the next power house of Northern India, the Maurya. At the time that the Tchou were themselves subdued and driven out by the Quin, the Maurya was already in control of Maghadha through the line of Bimbissara. Their love-hate relationship with the Nandas constituted the main theme of northern Indian history. Spreading themselves to the east, their habit of making slaves from the native Xiang people that were known as the Khas to the Lao and the Mois to the Viet did not stop. Their ordeals stayed on and off until the colonial era and became subjected to exploitation and subsequently drove to the extinction, under the law of natural selection of the west. The Mauryans were responsible for the restoration of the Greek Empire under the new Phoenician identity. After 750 BC, scattered clusters of villages throughout the Greek mainland, islands, and Iona had grown into city-state known in Greek as the polis. Rivalry between them was fierce, but by 600 BC, Sparta, Thebes, Corinth, and Athens became dominant after other poleis were settled in subordination (Notes: The Restoration of the Greek Empire). Buddhist source claimed that the Greek monarch Malinda was a great patron of Buddhism at Indrapathpuri that was founded as a new settlement of the Indra kings close by New Delhi at Gangetic India. Nevertheless, it was only after the fall of the Tchou Dynasty that we see a serious Buddhist type of Cakravatin Empire taking shape in India.

The Vakataka's Connection
From the Indian history book, we know that a consortium had been formed between the Vakataka Court and nine naga kings who were ruling at Padmavati (AInd: The Indigenous states in North India: Nagas: P. 128). Formed by the consortium of the northern naga houses, the Vakataka Samvat was originally located in northern countries (Uttar-pradesh) of India. Circumstances however moved its epicenter from its northern site of Kalyani to southern India of Deccan. Through the Puranas, the move of Aryavata across the Vindhya mountain range was full of myth. On the other hand, the history of the Leang (502-556) contains a passage of the country Po-Li or Ra-tsa-Po-Li that we could identify as Rajpuri of Deccan.
The men had theirs heir curly; they wear a piece of cotton cloth that they enveloped horizontally around their body; the king wore a diadem decorated with all sorts of gems, sit in a throne in gold; the girls who sit around him were adorned with jewelry. The family name of the king was Kaundinya; he sent an embassy in 517, the other in 522. It is said that the consort of king Cudhodana (the father of Buddja Gautama) was a princess of this country. (DICI: P.283)
The description of the people in the passage as having curly hair applied in particular to the indigenous tribesmen of Deccan but was the same description that Chinese historians gave to Asian Indigenous tribesmen in general (Prey-Nokor: The Birth of the Khmer Empire: The Kun-Lun Kingdom). It reflected the isolation of Deccan from Aryavata before the settlement of the Vakataka court at Rajpuri among Tamil tribesmen of South India. The interesting part of the passage is about the consort of king Cudhodana who was actually the mother of Buddha Gautama being mentioned as a family member of the Vakataka's court. It agrees with the Buddhist tradition that the two consorts, Sri Mahamaya and Pajapati of king Sudhodhana were both daughters of king Anjana and the queen Yasodhara who was a member of the Sakya family of Kalyani. It is said that during Buddha Gautama 's lifetime, the Naga Kingdom of Kalyani became the base of Buddhist expansion in Nagadvipa and extended itself from the Gangetic India to Vanga. The move of its epicenter to Deccan must to happen later during the fall of the Tchou Dynasty when the Yueh-Shih occupied Vanga and changed the city of Kalyani to Champavati (Champapura: The Impact on the Tian Legacy: The Fall of Hiong-Wang). At the end of Pravarasena's reign, evidences show that Vakataka was divided into two factions. Rudrasena I who succeeded his grandfather and formed the main branch of his family with Nandivaradhana apparently kept contact with their eastern root. On the other hand, Sarvasena who ruled the western part of the empire became more and more detached from Southeast Asian development and soon fell into the dark side of the western culture. Nevertheless, We know now that the queen Sri Mahamaya and family members belonged to the Nanda house of the Choladara Naga clan. Conforming to the Khmer legend of Prah Thong as ruler of the southern cardinal state of king Adityavamsa's empire, Kaundinya came from Deccan where the displaced Sakya court of Kalyani took refuge after the fall of the Hiong-Wang kingdom. It explains why many so called South Indian legacies that he brought with him to his new Southeast Asian homeland were mostly Buddhist artifacts from Deccan. It is consistent with the fact that Rajapuri became now one of many cities of India that were closely connected to Buddhism. In paricular, Amaravati became a city of Deccan that was well renown of its local industry that produced the Buddha images of Amaravati style (Notes: Buddha images of Amaravati style). On the same note, we knew that the Sakyan family members of Buddha Gautama were by now split into two royal houses. While the queen mother Sri Mahamaya, belonged to the Nanda house, her husband King Sudhodhana and all the Mauryan family belonged to the Simha line of Sakan kings. Having their origin from Southeast Asia, the Nandas had no problems to fit into the indigenous environment of Southeast Asia after their return while the Sakan clans still retained their own pride and prejudice toward the indigenous people. Through out their history of intrusion into the south, clashes with the native naga houses had been numerously recorded. Their temperament of racism caused them to offend their hosts even they knew that they were a lot less noble (of Aryan root) than them. It is important to note that while the Sakyan family of Deccan accepted Budddhism wholeheartedly, their Sakyan compatriots of kapilavathu in Nepal lost interest in Buddhism as soon as Buddha Gautama was entering into Nirvana and reverted themselve back to their Pagan faith.

The Birth of the Gupta Empire
From the Indian source, we know that Chandragupta I started the Gupta Empire in 320 by marrying a princess named Kumaradevi of the powerful Naga State of Lichavi. The state of Lichavi (in Chinese Li-Tchoui) was referring to Srasvati, which we had located in Southeast Asia. Her name "Kumaradevi" moreover identified her as a member of the Kumera royal house of Prey Nokor (Inscription of Vo-Canh: Historical background). From the fact that their son, Samudragupta sided himself to his mother-line, we could see how important the native Naga legacy played its role in the early formation of the Gupta court. The Vishnu Puranas that were compiled later as part of the Hindu heritage provided us with information about the state of the Naga power-houses during the time that was going to affect Southeast Asia as a whole. In the legend of Prah Thong, the mentioning of cardinal states of which Adityavamsa assigned each one of his sons to rule indicates that he himself was a Cakravatin monarch who was then ruling over the Middle Kingdom. Our assumption is that he was actually a member of the Gupta royal house who rose from obscurity into becoming a powerhouse of India. During the start-up, there is no doubt that they were much less powerful than the Vakataka Court of Deccan that was formed as a consortium of the local Naga Kings. Nevertheless, the Koshans soon started its ascending trend in the world politic along with the rise of the Jin and later the Sui Dynasty of China. Their rise to power would give members of the Ta-Yueh Shih family a push in their fight against the nagas. In modern history of India, Samudragupta was to make a political stunt that would change the state affair of northern India for good. In order to build the Gupta Empire, Samudragupta had to exterminate North Indian rulers who were in a high probability of Koshan background. As one of them was Rudrasena I of the Vakataka court, the rest might have been the Cham kings who were ruling at Padmavati in consortium with Rudrasena I. After his death, Chandragupta II continued the same policy and the Gupta Empire would soon reach its zenith by incorparating through diplomacy more naga ream of Southeast Asia. The fact that he married a princess of the Naga family KuvaraNaga suggests the subjugation and the inclusion of more Naga territory into his mighty empire. Indian history confirms that Chandragupta II proclaimed himself as a Rajadhiraja or a Cakravatin monarch and that Magadha was then the Middle country or the capital of his Cakravatin Empire (Notes: Magadha as a Middle Kingdom). The princess of the Naga family KuvaraNaga was likely a member of the court of Virapura of Prey-Nokor that was in itself the remnant of the fallen Tchou Court of China. With the marriage, it is understandable that Chandragupta II extended the Gupta Empire well beyond the Indian Continent. Since Vakataka fell under the Gupta Empire, it was not a surprise that the Chinese court mentioned him as a monarch of the Funan Empire. It meant that either through peaceful political move or through a sinister maneuver, Kambuja Desa also fell under the Gupta' s rule. Chinese records later mentioned about the king of Funan Tian-Tchou Chantan who sent an embassy to China, offering tamed elephants as tribute to the Chinese court in the first month of 357. In supporting the Chinese source, Arakkanese inscriptions reveal that Chandraditya was also commemorated as king of Arakkan that was at the time, part of Tian-sun. Mentioned in Chinese sources to be located at the western side of the Indochinese mainland next to India, Tian-sun was then a dependency of Funan (Kamboja-Desa: The Suzerainty of Funan: Tien-Souen or the country of Brahmans). We shall conclude that the rise of the Hupta Empire was in a close connection with the formation of Nokor Khmer at Prey-Nokor and that it was of both Indian and Southeast Asian roots. As we had seen, the King Adityavamsa, the same as Prah Thong himself should not be identified literally as any Indian monarch, but a ruler of the combined ancestry of both the Kamara and the Mauryan houses. As its life cycle turned into maturity, the Khmer tradition exposes signs of favoritism that led to the break down of the Gupta Empire later in the history of northern India. While Prah Thong and other brothers were anointed to rule the southern cardinal state, his youngest brother was on the other hand set in the position to rule over the Middle Kingdom. Jealous, the story continues, he made a crucial mistake of challenging his father's decision and was exiled from the country. With a complete court of entourage, he found his way to Prey Nokor and settled among the Cham communities. We shall see that the Angkorean Empire founded later by one of his descendants Jayavarman II was no less mighty than the Gupta Empire itself.

THE BUDDHIST EXPANSION
Of all the enigmas found during the compilation of modern history of India, the disappearance of Buddhism from its birthplace was left very much in the dark. We start by arguing that Buddhism was never been intended to stay in India. Before conceiving his religion, Buddha Gautama had made his trips to southeast Asia many times to prepare the ground work for his religion to find a safe ground to complete its yuga. By the emergence of the Gupta Empire, the Huns (Hiong-Nus) already made their way to settle in the Gangetic India. As the Hans had done in China, the Hiong-Nus started theirs own campaign against the Tian-Tchou. Before then, we shall argue that Buddhism owed its development to Southeast Asia no less than to the Gangetic India.

The Identity of Buddhaghosa
There are many occurrences of past Buddhist history in which the same events or sometime religious figures were claimed by both Ceylon and the Mon communities of Tathon as of their own heritage. For instance, the accounts of Buddha Gautama making three trips to Nagadvipa was presented in both Sri Langka and the Mon of Tathon's traditions as to be done at their current countries. Evidences however show that these trips were done instead at Sri Dharmaraja of the Menam Valley that was then the actual cultural center of Nagadvipa (Notes: Sri Dharmaraja as the Preceptor of Sri Langka and Tathon). Another controversy was concerning the identity of the monk Buddhaghosa himself of which Mon and Magadhan tradition claim to be of their own. According to the Culavamsa, Buddhaghosa was credited to translate the existing commentaries in Simhala Language into the Magadha (Pali) Language (The Culavamsa: Chap 37: History of Buddhaghosa (215-48): P 22-26, translated by Wilheim Geiger). He also added on his own commentaries, one of which was called Visuddhimaga that was a summary of all three Pitakas that never been done before. According to the Mon tradition, Buddhaghosa was credited to spread the Hinayana canon into the mainland of Indochina. Mon scholars even went further to claim that Buddhaghosa was a Mon national as they themselves are. The claim appears to be checked out by evidence of events that were happening not at Tathon, but at Sri Dharmaraja. An inscription found at Kedah, dated at early 5th century cites two Buddhist verses of the laws of cause and karma. The first verse was about memorizing the causality law of cause and effect, taught by Buddha Gamtama.
The laws that arise out of a cause, Tathagata told about that, and what is their suppression has thus been told by the great Samana.
The second verse states the evolution law of Karma as the cause of the life cycle as taught by Buddha Gautama.
Karma accumulates through lack of knowledge. Karma is the cause of (re-birth). Through knowledge no Karma is effected (and) through absence of Karma (one) is not born (again).
Another inscription founded at Weslesly Province repeats the Kedah inscription with added information about the author in the name of Buddhagupta who was mentioned as the great sailor actually residing in RaktamrTika.
[The gift] of Buddhagupta, the great sailor, whose abode was at RaktamrTika.
Buddhagupta and Buddhaghosa, if not the same person as we shall assert, were two Buddhist monks working on the same mission. Our argument is that the mission was very much distinctive and unique in its historical and cultural seTing to be considered as the work of two different persons. Back to the inscription, scholar attributes RaktamrTika as the Red Earth Chih-tu of the Chinese text identified later as the Siam country (Notes: The Siam Country). This was happening perhaps during his early monk-hood, for later in life evidence show that Buddhaghosa spent more of his time at Magadha. His translation of many Buddhist texts into Pali Language obviously was intended in the expansion of the Buddhist religion of Pali Canon back to Maghadha Jambudvipa (Notes: Buddhaghosa and the Pali Language). The Siam Tradition also confirms that Buddhaghosa once stayed at Sudhammavati mentioned to be at the western shore of the Me Khong (Menam) river (ASiam1: Les Khmers et les Tais: P.194).
At the year 949 (406 AD) of the foundation of the Buddhist religion, a venerable named Buddhaghosacara, from the village of Kosala, in the country of Sudhammavati, at the west of Me Khong, went to take the 84000 Dhamma from the grand palace of Langka to distribute in Jumbudvipa.
The account dates the work of Buddhaghosa in 406 AD during the reign of Chandragupta II at Magadha and after the settlement of Kaundinya at Lavo (Pan-Pan) in 375 AD. Located around Pong Tuk where Buddha Images of Gupta style were found, Sudhammavati was at the time connected with the Kaundinya court of Lavo. The Siam account also agrees with the Mahavamsa that Buddhaghosa soon was heading to Magadha.
Then having accomplished what he had to do, he set out for Jumbudvipa to adore the sacred Bodhi Tree.
Coincidentally enough, Indian sources confirm that there was among the founders of Buddhist schools at Magadha, a religious figure named Buddhagupta in the second half of the fifth century. All these findings confirm that Buddhaghosa had played important role in establishing Buddhism in both Southeast Asia and the Gangetic India. Nevertheless, the Mahavamsa did not credit the spreading of Theravada Buddhism as due only to the work of Buddhaghosa at Suvannabhumi alone. As we shall seen, the expansion of Hinayana canon in Southeast Asia was actually a religious movement involving all stratum of society.

The Foundation of Hinayana canon
Historical facts reveal that Buddhism, as any other religions, was able to spread itself only by the support of the contemporary powerful empires. In the past, it is a known fact that the first Buddhist expansion out of its birthplace could never been done without the support of the powerful king Ashoka. Likewise, without the support from the Khmer court of Kaundinya, and possibly the Gupta court of Magadha, it is doubtfully that Buddhaghosa by himself could do much for spreading the Buddha teaching at both Gangetic India and Southeast Asia. This finding led us to believe that Buddhaghosa whose contribution to the spread of the Hinayana sect of Buddhism in both Sri Dharmaraja and Magadha was himself a member of the translation's comity of the Tribidaka into Pali version of the Kaundinya court. Furthermore, Khmer Tradition claims that both Khemara scripture and language were invented to suit the project. On the same premise, it is also important to distinguish the difference between the Khmer scripture that was used in regular text and the Khemara scripture that was invented specifically for use in Buddhist texts. The Khmer scripture have been modeled directly from the Magadha script and could be identified easily by its resemblance to the Gupta or Deva-Nagari script as found in its early specimen of the inscription of Vo-Canh. The script evolved later into the cursive Khmer scripture that stayed to become modern Khmer scripture. It was used in conjunction with the Khmer Language that was mainly inscribed in the last part of the Khmer inscriptions, reserved for administration purpose. Evidence shows that the Gupta script was also used in the Chenla court and was passed on later to the Chola court of South India. It became later the preceptor of the Mon scripture during the time that the Mons of Tathon was under the Talaing royal house of Orissa. Another scripture that was used in conjunction of the Sanskrit Language, to inscribe the religious section of the inscriptions, was also modeled from the Gupta scripture but included the decorated feature of the Brahmi or Cham script. On the other hand, the Khemara script that was mentioned in the Khmer chronicle as the invention of Prah Thong's court was used solely in Buddhist text. Known also as the Round scripture, it was particularly suitable to inscribe large Buddhist texts on palm leaves. Its round feature might prevent the stylus to damage the leaves in inscribing the straight line of the Brahmi scripture. On his pilgrimage trip to India around the seventh century, I-Tsing had stopped at Sri Dhammaraja (Che-li-fo-che in Chinese texts) to study the Buddhist laws. During his stay, he noticed that most Buddhist texts were written in Kun-Lun language and scripture (BEFEO IV: Deux Itinarraires De Chine en Inde I:P. 220, By Paul Pelliot). Even-though close to Sanskrit, I-Tsing had clearly distinguished that it was not the same language. The Kun-Lun Language, as we have argued, was no other than the Khmeara Language invented by Prah Thong's court, and was spreading to Sri Vijaya to become later known as the Pali Language. It proves that during I-Tsing's visit, the Hinayana canon was already taught at Sri Dharmaraja in Pali language, but was obviously not current to the general Chinese Buddhist communities yet. After his stay at Sri Dharmaraja, I-Tsing was impressed of how Buddhism was taught there and advised his fellow Chinese monks to stop by for a crash course of Buddhism, before going further to India. What he did not know was that the Hinayana canon that was being taught at Magadha was actually developed at Sri Dharmaraja. At the time that India fell more and more under Zoroastrianism and started to loose interest in Buddhism, evidences show that it was Sri Dharmaraja that took on the lead for the next Buddhist development. According to the Culavamsa, the work of translating Buddhist texts from Simhalese to Magadha tongue was done at Sri Langka and that Buddhaghosa was very much involved in the translation's work (The Culavamsa: Chap 37: History of Buddhaghosa (215-48): P 22-26, translated by Wilheim Geiger). It gave the impression that Simhalese language was the same as Sanskrit and that Pali was actually the same as Magadhan native language. As we had seen, Pali is not native of Magadha, but was invented by the court of Kaundinya solely for religious purposes. Even though it retains many of Magadha's aspect, it also included many of Cham and Sanskrit features. Scripted in Pali, the Hinayana canon was then perceived to be free off the Hindu legacy and was believed to reflect the true teaching of Buddha Gautama. In the new discipline, the Tantric parts of the Sanskrit version were completely stripped off from the texts. In that regard, it is fair to say that the use of the Pali language was primary intended to split the Hinayana sect from its Theravada form of Buddhism. While it was preserved in its pure form and was practiced only in secluded parts of Jumbudvipa, the Theravada Buddhism of Sanskrit version was more acceptable to the rest of the world and was going to give birth to many branches of today's Mahayana version. At Angkor, the Theravada canon was practiced along with Sanskrit and Paganism to suit the cakravatin establishment of the Angkorean court.

Reference:

ISSA: The Indianized States of Southeast Asia, by G. Coedes
AInd: Ancient India, by R.C. Majumdar
AGr: Ancient Greece A Concise History, by Peter Green
HOA: History of Indonesia, by by B. R. ChaTerji
BChin: The Birth of China, by Herlee Glessner Creel
Funan: BEFEO III: Le Funan, by Paul Pelliot
ASiam1: Annales du Siam, Premier Partie, Translated by Camille NoTon
Upa: The Upanishads, Translated and Selected by Juan Mascaro

Notes:

Chronology:
230: Fan Man extended the Funan Empire; 240-550: The Gupta Empire; 320-335: The reign of Chandragupta I; 335-375: The reign of Samudragupta; 375: Kaundinya settled at Prey Nokor; 380-414: The reign of Chandragupta II; 433: The governor of Kiao-tche, Tan Ho Chih, overran Prey Nokor; 421: Yang Mah I requested investiture from the court of China; 431/32: Yang Mah II requested troops from Funan to detroy Kiao-tche; 485-514: The reign of King Kaundinya Jayavarman at Lavo; 492-498: The reign of King Gunavarman (at Prey Nokor); 514-550: The reign of King Rudravarman (at Prey Nokor);
Kandanya vs Kaundinya
The two words had close phonetic pronunciation, but etymologically are totally different in meaning. The word "Kanda-anya" is a Central Asian legacy from Kamra Kanda and was used mostly to refer for the Western Kambojan stock, known also as the Khek. The word "Kaundinya", on the other hand, is a short formed of "Kau-Nandinya" ad is a derivative of "Kau-Nanda", meaning the Bull Nanda. It was meant to be the Bull Nanda of Siva, and was closely connected to the Khmer identity that is a derivative of Meru.
The Role of Business in modern Societies
There are perceptions that Modernization is about building big cities to accommodate trade and commercial activities. This mind-set, perhaps a legacy of the Colonialization era, credited business as an important catalyst of Civilization. As happened in the past, this aristocratic view confuses between urbanization and civilization. As the poor folks are mostly left out of this development and often scorned by urbanization, business is only a small part of the world Civilization of today. Unchecked, it becomes a commodity for a selected few to thrive.
Ancient Sea Trade
Contrary to common belief that Southeast Asia was the recipient of civilization brought by foreign sea merchants, evidences show that western sea trade only reached Ceylon until the first half of sixth century (HSA: Southeast Asian Proto-history: P. 39).
There is no evidence that shipping from the Persian Golf had yet began to sail direct to China; according to Byzantine writers in the first half of sixth century it went no farther east than Ceylon.
At the same time, evidences show that Southeast Asia already engaged the sea-trade with China since the early time.
Indian ships may have been sailing to China, but it is a striking fact that Chinese sources mentioned only Kun-Lun, or Southeast Asian ships as bringing the luxury goods from Nan-Hai (southern ocean) to the south Chinese ports.
The Sanskrit word Kumara
Often confused with the word "KumAr", meaning kid or teenager, the Sanskrit word "Kumara" is also a derivative of the word "Meru".
The Aswa or the Iswin of the Rig-Veda
Aswa or Iswin was often invoked as divinity to the warrior tribesmen of the steppe. Aswataman was actually the title of their Kambojan ruler.
The Kauruvas and the Panduvas
As a cakravatin monarch of Middle East, Meru was actually the progenator of the forefathers of the European royal houses. During the Kuru's war, evidences show that the Ur's court already fell under the demonic influence of God Asura. With intense family's feud, they split itself into two antagonist camps, the Kauruvas and the Paduvas. Being the losers of the wars, the Kauruvas were taking refuge in Gangetic India and were immediately fell under the control of Lord Indra who at the time ruled China under the Shang dynasty. As we see next, the emergence of the Western Kamboja clan settling themselves at Parthia, already practicing the knowledge of Giangtism.
Europe's Dark Age
In Europe, the Dark Age started after the fall of the Mycenaeans Greek civilization. Triggered by the fall of the Shang dynasty of China, a new civilization that was known as the Minoan civilization emerged in close connection with the god-king Meruduk. By then, the Assyrians had established themselves for a long period of time as the rulers of Babylon and were responsible to bring-up the Phoenician civilization of coastal European societies through the sea-trade. Taking the advantage of the Moon God Tsin's retreat from Middle East, a new phase of European civilization started under the influence of Zoroastranism. Along with the invasion of the Hiong-Nu by the land channel, the Roman empire started to exert its military control through out Europe.
Chinese Version of the Tchou Dynasty
The Tchous traced their ancestry back to one of the most ancient rulers, but they looked upon Hou Chi as the founder of their house (BChin: Who were the Tchous: P.225-226). He was said to have been Minister of agriculture under one of the ancient emperors. His name means "Ruler of Miller" and he is nothing more nor less than an agriculture deity. The fact that they spent their days with the Firedog Barbarians during their decline, Hou Chi and the Tchou dynasty must to be according to the good Chinese formula, rooted from southern royal houses. In fact other sources confirm that Hou Chi himself was a Xiang. After losing battle to the Han, the Tchous took refuge mostly with the Wu and the Tsu of the south (Prey Nokor: The Fall of the Hiong-Wang Kingdom: The Remnant of the Tsu Dynasty).
The Conception of the Trinity
It was the Nandas who formulated the concept of the Trinity by drawing the essence of God's effect from true historical data associating to his manifestation in the physical world. Through his effects, they came out with attributions listed as God's characteristic to be taught through the Hindu Culture. As God is spiritual (impersonal), each god of the Trinity was actually abstracted from his manifestation as living (personal) gods during our current Buddhist kappa. As Brahma was the preceptor of humanity, he was often regarded as pantheistic in helping humanity to cope with nature. On the other hand, Siva was considered theistic due to his responsibility as a true god-king ruling over a mature humanity. While Wishnu promoted wealth to the livings, Buddha was on the other hand let humanity to salvation.
The Different Views of God Interference
In this pantheist view, God does not interfere directly (personally) with the physical world, but through his manifestation. The Trinity constitutes the three forms of God's manifestation in humanity (of the four past creations) that already took place on this earth. The view had been since challenged by other institutions. The western theist view is based on Zoroaster's teaching of a single world created by one God (Asura) and since God is personal, humanity could be preserved indefinitely with God 's grace. On the other hand, atheists who claim themselves men of science challenge the notion of God's existence and maintain that humanity is born through evolution and could survive without God's intervention.
The Upanishads
The Upanishads are treaties that were revealed to religious scholars mostly through transcendental meditation. They were considered as the top knowledge ever acquired by high-merit Rishis (hermits) in their own search for spirituality. Etymologically the Sanskrit word Upanishad (Upani-shad) means sitting (Sad) under (Upani). It could mean "Sitting under God" for seeking spiritual knowledge through transcendent meditation. It was the same prophetic revelation in Abrahamic schools, received from God through direct contact or dreams, It also could mean "Sitting under the master" that was a normal practice of Hindu novice to receive knowledge from his master. Unless they were taught directly by the Living-god himself, Buddhist schools warned of any possible distortion that came out from the prophet's personal view or worst yet received from a false God.
Rudra-Siva as the Personal God of the Bible
In a close analogy, we could identify Rudra as the personal (living) god of the Bible's book of Genesis and Siva as the impersonal (spiritual) godfather of the New Testament. In the Book of Genesis, the Moon God Tsin (Meru) already applied his destructive force on western communities in the attempt to change the path of their wrong religious practices. With time running short, Meru did not accomplish his goal and by the time that he exited the west, the Abrahamic schools did not change theirs religious habits, but worshipped Rudra who acted a lot less father-like figure than Siva. Under the Som cukture, they orshipped him the best they could by trying to appease to his grace. The Soma Culture gave them free will in committing sin as long they made sacrifices to him. Understandably, Meru or Rudra's wrath was seen even stronger. In the Rig-Veda, Rudra already took the malignant and destructive role of nature that was going to take its full effect in later Vedas.
The Aryaman as the early Personal God of Siva
Unlike other major Vedic gods, Siva was not invoked in the Rig-Veda even once. Considering that the Nandas were later Sivaite, it is implying that Siva was invoked by other name during the pre-Hindu period. In the Rig-Veda, Aryaman was the first reference to the spirit of Meru who ruled with the help of the Nandas (The Man Race: The Shan Mythology: The Aryan Identity). During the late development, it was Rudra that became the personal god of the Jewish faith and was to deitfied as the spiritual God Siva. During the next Hindu development, Siva became the second member of the Trinity after Brahma.
Adam vs Satan in the Western Mythology
Satan who was then a high minister of the Moon God Tsin refused to bow before Adam. The act of rebellion angered the Moon God who chased him out from his heavenly court. Satan then swore to sway the descendants of Adam from God just to prove that they were not worth of God's high esteem. This western view of Satan willful conduct was not shared by the eastern view. As a matter of fact, it was Adam or man 's own aggression that made him becoming MArA or the Antichrist against God's will. By the power of knowledge received from Satan, Zeus, Hadis made themselves gods of the Sakan world to challenge the Moon God Tsin.
Sacrifice and Slave Trade
One phase of the human sacrifices of the Shang is exceedingly strange. The victims are spoken of sometimes as so many men, sometimes as so many captives, and most of the time as so many Xiangs. These Xiang were made captive in war, and the custom of scarifying them grew up as an aftermath of warfare. But once it was established it seems to have grown; expeditions were made just for the purpose of capturing Xiang. It is highly probable that these Xiang were used as slave or as offering to god. The word Xiang came to mean Slave as the word slave was derived from Slavs, because one time great numbers of slaves were sold as slave in Europe.(BChin: Sacrfice: P. 213)
The Restoration of the Greek Empire
A democracy appeared to emerge along side aristocracy in Athens beginning with the reforms of the great lawgiver Solon in around 594 BC. Despite the rivalry, some cultural factors united the states. Belief in common deities, cultural events and activities such as the pan-Hellenic games at Olympia. Philosophers began to speculate on the nature of the Universe. Looking closely, the emergence of the new Greek societies was in par with the emergence of the Wu under the reform through the cakravatin development of the Tchou Dynasty.
Magadha as a Middle Kingdom
Even after the Gupta Dynasty had been disintegrating a century later, Magadha still retained its legacy as a Middle Kingdom. As the Sanskrit word "Cakravati" means the abode of the Ring or Wheel, its concept is based on the Wheel of Dharma which became also the core of Buddhism. It was actually the first Buddhist Cakravatin Empire of Southeast Asia, if not of the world itself.
Buddhagupta
Indian history referred Buddhagupta as a member of the Gupta court. He was portrayed as a feudal king who ruled after the break-up of the Gupta Empire. Considering that Buddhaghosa might have been referring himself as Buddhagupta, the founder of the Buddhist school Buddhagupta at Magadha might have been a monk instead of a king.
Sri Dharmaraja as the Preceptor of Sri Langka and Tathon
In retrospective, Sri Dharmaraja was known during the early stage of Buddhist expansion as Langkasuka and also as Sudhammavati. Located at the Menam Valley, it was then a part of Dvaravati that was known as a country of Nagadvipa. The formation of Sri Langka at Ceylon and of Sudharmavati at Tathon, as we shall see, happened later after the uprising of the Chenla clan. Evidences show that the Water Chenla king Bhavavarman and his line of descendant Anuruddha would play important role in establishing the Hinayana of Pali canon in both countries.
The Siam Country
Etymologically the word Raktamrttika (Rakta-mrttika) means Syam (Rakta) of mrttika. The word "mrttika" is on the other hand the same word as "Mrduk or Meruduk" and is referring to the Param-Kambujan king.
Buddhaghosa and the Pali Language
In Buddhist tradition, Buddhaghosa was a key figure in the formation of the Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism. The identification of him as Buddhagupta of the inscription of Khedas suggests that he was a member of the Gupta court. It was quite common that a monk was receiving a royal title through his accomplishment and merit. He must have been a real member of the Gupta royal family also. Either way, Buddhaghosa must to play important role in the invention of the Pali Language and later was part of Kaudinya' committee in the mission of translating of Buddhist texts from Sanskrit to Pali.
Kumeruraja
In the chronicles of the Khmer Heroes, the Khmer legendary Prah Thong was referred as Kumeruraja and his father-in-law was referred as KambojaNagaraja.
The first Ksatra was KambojaNagaraja; he did it for his son-in-law Kameruraja. (The chronicles of Khmer Heroes, by Eng Sot)
This is a past recollection of the formation of Nokor Khmer by members of the Khmer court.
The Pali word "Khemara"
The word "Khemara" is the Pali equivalence to the Sanskrit word "Kumeru".